Technologies

2 Million-Year-Old DNA, the Oldest Ever Recovered, Opens Window to the Past

The prehistoric forest of northern Greenland was home to mastodons, reindeer, hares and an abundance of plant life.

As early as 2006, Eske Willerslev and members of his lab ventured into northern Greenland with a drill, extracting cores of sediment from the Kap København Formation. They were hunting for environmental DNA, or eDNA, in their cores — puzzle pieces that could help paint a picture of the plants and animals present in the region 2 million years ago.

But for the longest time, they came up empty-handed. «Every time we had improvements in terms of DNA extraction or sequencing technology, we’d revisit these samples,» Willerslev, an evolutionary geneticist at the University of Cambridge, said in a press briefing on Tuesday.

No matter what, the researchers failed to get what they were looking for. The run of bad luck saw members of the lab turn to the occult for an explanation; they named their troubles «the curse of the Kap København Formation.»

But with steady improvements in DNA extraction and sequencing technologies, the curse was finally broken.

On Wednesday, the team published the results of their 16-year pursuit of ancient DNA in the journal Nature. They were able to sequence eDNA from 41 sediment samples, collected in 2006, 2012 and 2016 from the Kap København Formation and undisturbed by humans for 2 million years. Their analyses revealed that a lush forest replete with reindeer, hares, mastodons and a wide variety of flora once stood in what is now a dull, gray polar desert.

Willerslev, a pioneering geneticist who has previously recovered eDNA from ice cores and shown it could survive in glaciers, noted that the «breakthrough» relied on expertise, advances in genetic sequencing techniques and bioinformatics.

History in the soil

DNA, which carries the instructions for life, is not a particularly sturdy molecule. The bonds that hold it together are weak and, over time, they break down.

This is why, even though we have an abundance of dinosaur fossils, we don’t have any dinosaur DNA. The beasts died out 66 million years ago, and the DNA would simply not survive that long.

When DNA degrades, the once-long strands of information break apart into smaller and smaller pieces. It becomes almost impossible to piece these fragments back together in the right configuration, especially if they are mixed in with a lot of other DNA from the environment.

Think of DNA like a book. Let’s say Alice in Wonderland. If you have the whole book, you can understand the story. But if you’re missing a few pages, you might not understand where the White Rabbit came from or why Alice ended up at a tea party with the Mad Hatter. If you’re missing lots of pages, you probably can’t even tell what the story was to begin with. Alice? Who’s that? And why is she 10 feet tall?

That’s the problem working with ancient DNA. You might be able to retrieve small fragments of DNA but it is generally too fragmented to be able to tell where it came from — and certainly too fragmented to understand where it came from.

But under certain circumstances, DNA fragments can survive deep time.

«The ‘survival time’ of DNA in the environment is incredibly variable and strongly dependent on the environment itself,» notes Michael Knapp, an ecologist and geneticist at Otago University in New Zealand.

Previously, the oldest DNA ever recovered came from mammoth fossils found in the Siberian permafrost. In a Nature paper in 2021, researchers showed that DNA from the mammoth teeth was, potentially, about 1.6 million years old. The DNA recovered was broken up into small fragments but they weren’t degraded so much they couldn’t be pieced back together. The cold temperature of the permafrost certainly helped with this.

It’s a similar story in the new study.

Willerslev and his collaborators postulate that the long survival time of the DNA in their sediment cores was possible for two reasons. The first is the constant cold temperature of the polar desert. The second is the way the DNA is bound to minerals in the cores, preventing degradation over longer time scales. The idea is that these mineral surfaces prevent enzymes from breaking down the DNA.

Karina Sand, a geochemist at the University of Copenhagen and co-author on the paper, explained that one of the technological leaps that enabled this feat was extracting DNA from clay and quartz minerals. The latter provided an abundance of DNA, but the former was harder to extract good DNA from. Fortunately, that leaves the door open for even older DNA extraction.

«If we can get better at extracting the DNA from the clay minerals, then we think we can go further back in time with DNA,» she said.

The research team was able to extract DNA from the sediment cores and begin to read the surviving fragments. These fragments were then compared to a database of genomes (complete DNA sequences) of modern plants and animals, looking for DNA matches. Over time, they were able to fill the blank pages of history, demonstrating the thriving ecosystem of ancient Greenland.

The ancient forest of Greenland

Two million years ago, Greenland was a different place.

«The Kap København ecosystem, which has no present-day equivalent, existed at considerably higher temperatures than we have today,» noted Mikkel Pederson, a geneticist at the Lundbeck Foundation GeoGenetics Centre, in a press release.

In northern Greenland, average temperatures during this time were likely more than 11 degrees Celsius (around 20 degrees Fahrenheit) higher than they are today. Previous studies at Kap København have shown evidence it was home to a boreal forest, but the eDNA extracted and analyzed in the new study provides a complete reimagining of the area, adding in megafauna and a wide variety of plant life.

The headline mammal DNA found in the cores is undoubtedly the mastodon — which is having a bit of a moment thanks to social media. Some of the eDNA found matched to the Elephantidae family, which includes elephants, mammoths and mastodons. It seems mastodons may have roamed Greenland 2 million years ago, though the researchers note the evidence isn’t extremely strong and is based on relatively weak DNA matches.

The team also found DNA related to reindeer, hares and rabbits, and the subfamily of animals that includes lemmings, voles and muskrats. Notably absent, however, is DNA from carnivores. The researchers suggest this is because of their comparably small biomass in relation to the herbivores. «It’s basically a numbers game,» Willerslev said.

One of the more intriguing DNA finds is of the Atlantic horseshoe crab. The species is no longer found at such northern latitudes, and the authors suggest this may mean Kap København experienced warmer sea surface temperatures 2 million years ago. Previous research has suggested the sea surface was warmer at higher latitudes, and the discovery of horseshoe crab DNA lends further support to this hypothesis.

Warmer temperatures are key. Multiple authors on the paper have reiterated the importance of understanding an ecosystem like this, given the effects of global warming. Two million years ago, the climate was changing and the eDNA shows that Arctic species were living with species that loved much warmer climes. This helps scientists to get an understanding of how nature was adapting to those changes and, within the DNA signatures, there may be clues to ways we could help modern-day fauna and flora survive extreme climatic swings.

One of the significant limitations of studying eDNA is that scientists have to postulate about the kinds of species that were living at the time. Knapp notes closely related ancient species might give you a DNA match but this is «somewhat inaccurate» — it provides an approximation of what existed. We may only be able to assign the DNA at a family or order level, so we can’t know exactly what roamed the boreal forest of Greenland 2 million years ago.

Even so, the recovery of DNA this old opens a new window to the prehistoric Earth, a pathway for scientists and researchers to probe the ecosystems that existed long before humans were around. The team will head to northern Canada to extract cores next year and hope to go even further back in time.

The extraction method may even lend itself to finding DNA in more humid climates across the world, like in Africa and Australia.

«If we can begin to explore ancient DNA in clay grains from Africa, we may be able to gather ground-breaking information about the origin of many different species —perhaps even new knowledge about the first humans and their ancestors,» Willerslev said in a statement.

«The possibilities are endless.»

Technologies

Researchers Use Quantum Computer to Improve AI Predictions

A quantum computer assists an AI model with calculations that would take weeks to figure out with a normal computer.

AI models have been helping with predictions for a while now. Doctors, weather forecasters and stock brokers all use AI to try to peek into the future. Inside the Leibniz Supercomputing Centre in Germany, researchers have been experimenting with an AI model and a quantum computer. The quantum computer helps the AI with complex predictions it can’t handle alone.

The research team from University College London, who published their findings on Friday in the journal Science Advances, say that one day, quantum computers could help AI models make fast, accurate predictions across a range of industries, which would take regular computers weeks to figure out.

«The paper demonstrates that for these kinds of studies, even today’s relatively small and unreliable quantum devices can enhance the predictions of conventional AI models,» Peter Coveney, UCL professor and the study’s coauthor, told CNET.

Quantum computers differ from regular computers in several ways, including being able to perform simultaneous calculations rather than step-by-step calculations, and using quantum bits. While classical computers use bits as the smallest data unit, with each representing either a zero or a one, qubits can represent both zero and one simultaneously (superposition). Two qubits can also be linked together (entanglement).

Superposition and entanglement allow quantum computers to solve complex problems much faster than traditional computers. But quantum computers are incredibly delicate and must be kept at extremely low temperatures, making them impractical for everyday use.

But while today’s quantum computers are still experimental and often finicky, they might help AI solve big problems that would otherwise be too complicated or time-consuming.

Quantum advantage

The AI model used in the study is housed on a supercomputer connected to the quantum computer at the research center.

The team used this setup to predict how gases and liquids in a system would move and interact over an extended period. Climate science, medicine and city engineering all use this kind of modeling.

«Our new method appears to demonstrate ‘quantum advantage’ in a practical way — that is, the quantum computer outperforms what is possible through classical computing alone,» coauthor Maida Wang, a PHD student at UCL, said in an announcement.

Quantum computers are incredibly sensitive. Even tiny disturbances in the environment throw off the calculations, so the technology is still mostly used in research labs.

Because quantum computing is still limited, the researchers did most of the study with the supercomputer. The AI model handled the data processing, then used the quantum computer for one step.

After completing the hard calculations, the quantum computer handed the reins back to the AI model, so it could take care of everything else.

«Even today’s noisy and error-prone quantum devices can enhance the performance of conventional machine-learning algorithms trained on data from modern supercomputers,» Coveney said.

Solving big problems

Hooking up an AI model to run calculations on a quantum computer might sound outlandish, but there are already real examples of companies using this approach in healthcare.

In 2025, Google said its Quantum Echoes algorithm could calculate the structure of molecules that could pave the way for future drug discovery. Also, last year, the University of Toronto and Insilico Medicine used AI with a quantum computer to build molecules that target an «undruggable» form of cancer.

While there are still challenges with ensuring predictions are reliable, as well as with the sheer size of the datasets involved, Coveney said quantum computers can improve complex predictions.

«We are already at work on real-world applications,» he said.

Technologies

Today’s NYT Connections Hints, Answers and Help for April 20, #1044

Here are some hints and the answers for the NYT Connections puzzle for April 20, No. 1,044.

Looking for the most recent Connections answers? Click here for today’s Connections hints, as well as our daily answers and hints for The New York Times Mini Crossword, Wordle, Connections: Sports Edition and Strands puzzles.

Today’s NYT Connections puzzle is pretty tricky. It was a little unnerving to see «cannibalism» as one of the clues. Read on for clues and today’s Connections answers.

The Times has a Connections Bot, like the one for Wordle. Go there after you play to receive a numeric score and to have the program analyze your answers. Players who are registered with the Times Games section can now nerd out by following their progress, including the number of puzzles completed, win rate, number of times they nabbed a perfect score and their win streak.

Read more: Hints, Tips and Strategies to Help You Win at NYT Connections Every Time

Hints for today’s Connections groups

Here are four hints for the groupings in today’s Connections puzzle, ranked from the easiest yellow group to the tough (and sometimes bizarre) purple group.

Yellow group hint: Cough, cough!

Green group hint: Reel it in.

Blue group hint: Spin a web.

Purple group hint: Not Sunday or Tuesday.

Answers for today’s Connections groups

Yellow group: Mass of smoke.

Green group: Fishing gear.

Blue group: Associated with black widow spiders.

Purple group: ____ Monday.

Read more: Wordle Cheat Sheet: Here Are the Most Popular Letters Used in English Words

What are today’s Connections answers?

The yellow words in today’s Connections

The theme is mass of smoke. The four answers are billow, cloud, plume and puff.

The green words in today’s Connections

The theme is fishing gear. The four answers are bait, hook, net and rod.

The blue words in today’s Connections

The theme is associated with black widow spiders. The four answers are cannibalism, hourglass, venom and web.

The purple words in today’s Connections

The theme is ____ Monday. The four answers are blue, cyber, manic and meatless.

Toughest Connections puzzles

We’ve made a note of some of the toughest Connections puzzles so far. Maybe they’ll help you see patterns in future puzzles.

#5: Included «things you can set,» such as mood, record, table and volleyball.

#4: Included «one in a dozen,» such as egg, juror, month and rose.

#3: Included «streets on screen,» such as Elm, Fear, Jump and Sesame.

#2: Included «power ___» such as nap, plant, Ranger and trip.

#1: Included «things that can run,» such as candidate, faucet, mascara and nose.

Technologies

You Can Easily Switch From an iPhone to an Android Phone. Here’s How

Transfer your texts, photos and more from Apple’s iOS to your new Android phone.

Making the big leap from an iPhone to an Android phone, you’ll find yourself with a pretty long checklist of things to do. Whether you’re transitioning to Google’s Pixel 7 or a new Samsung phone like the Galaxy Z Flip 4, switching operating systems can quickly become a hassle if you don’t know the most efficient way to move your data.

The secret to an easy-peasy transfer process lies with the tiny plastic adapter that Google and Samsung (sometimes) include in the box. It’s like hiring professional movers to move your stuff, unpack it and decorate your new house just like your old one! The adapter has a USB-A connector on one end and a USB-C connector on the other that allows you to connect your new phone to your old iPhone. You can also use a USB-C to Lightning cable for newer phones like the iPhone 11.

With the adapter, you can transfer your photos, videos, files, music and wallpaper. You can even use it to automatically download any Android versions of free iOS apps you had on your old Apple phone. While iMessage, Apple’s messaging service, won’t work on an Android phone, you can even move your message history and threads to your new phone.

Switch from iPhone to a Google Pixel phone

If you’re switching specifically from an iPhone to a Google Pixel, the first thing you want to do is to charge up both phones. Next, you’re going to turn off iMessage across all of your Apple devices — any device that uses your AppleID. Go to Settings, then Messages and then toggle off iMessage.

If your new Pixel came with a SIM card, install it, turn the phone on and tap the Start button. Next, connect to a Wi-Fi network and then select Copy your data. Now unlock your old iPhone, and put your lighting power cable into the bottom. Then, plug the other end into the «magic adapter» which Google calls a Quick Switch Adapter (QSA). Finally, plug in the QSA into the Pixel. You can also use a USB-C to Lighting cable.

When prompted, tap Trust on your iPhone. Then sign into your Google Account on the Pixel. Next, choose what exactly you want to copy (photos, music, messages, etc.), then tap Copy.

Now it’s time for your Pixel to actually transfer everything. Depending on how much stuff you’re moving, this can take anywhere from a few minutes to a couple of hours. While the transfer happens, you can continue setting up your phone like adding a PIN or setting up Google Assistant and Google Pay. Once the transfer completes, you’re done. Check to make sure everything you wanted to migrate actually did and enjoy your new Google life.

Switch from an iPhone to a Samsung Galaxy phone

If you got a new Samsung Galaxy phone, it also comes with an adapter, though you can move your data over Wi-Fi, too. I recommend using the adapter because it’s faster. You can also use a USB-C to Lighting cable to connect the two. Just like the Pixel transfer, the first thing you need to do is make sure both phones are charged up and turn off iMessage on your iPhone.

However, unlike the Pixel, you have the option to set up your Galaxy phone as new and then transfer the data which means you can start using your phone right away instead of waiting. To start the transfer, open the Smart Switch app on your Samsung phone. Your phone might take a minute to download the app.

Once you have it opened, you might be prompted to send or receive data. Tap Receive. Then, choose how you want to transfer: Wi-Fi or cable. Next, connect both phones with the adapter and your iPhone’s lightning cable — if you’re transferring over Wi-Fi, there’s no need to connect the phones together with a cable.

On the iPhone, tap Trust and on the Samsung phone you’ll see a message pop up that reads Connecting to your iPhone. If your iPhone uses encryption for backup, you might be prompted to enter your password. It should be your Apple ID password.

Next, the Samsung phone will scan your iPhone for data. This can take a few minutes after which you can choose exactly what kind of data you want to bring over. Then, tap the transfer arrow. The actual transfer can take a couple of minutes to an hour. Once it’s done, go through your new Samsung phone and check on your data. If you’re not finding your photos and videos in the Gallery app, check the Google Photos app.